POLITICAL SUMMARY
On the 24th of January Her Majesty opened Parliament in person, and the following paragraphs from the Queen’s speech adequately (Mirabile dictu!) express the political aspect of affairs:-
“At the close of the last session I informed you that overtures had been made to me to ascertain whether, if a Conference should be held by the Great Powers of Europe, for the purpose of setting arrangements connected with the present state and future condition of Italy, a Plenipotentiary would be sent by me to assist at such a Conference. I have since received a formal invitation from the Emperor of Austria and from the Emperor of the French to send a Plenipotentiary to a Congress to consist of the representatives of the eight Powers who where parties to the Treaties of Vienna of 1815, the objects of such Congress being stated to be to receive communication of the treaties concluded at Zurich; and to deliberate, associating with the above-mentioned Powers the Courts of Rome, of Sardinia, and of the Two Sicilies, on the means best adapted for the pacification of Italy, and for placing its prosperity ob a solid and durable basis.
“Desirous at all times to concur in poceedings having for their object the maintenance of peace, I accepted the invitation, but at the same time I made known that, in such a Congress, I should steadfastly maintain the principle, that no external force should be employed to impose upon the people of Italy any particular Government or constitution.
“Circumstances have arisen which have led to a postponement of the Congress, without any day having been fixed for its meeting; but whether in Congress or by separate negotiation, I shall endeavour to obtain for the people of Italy freedom from foreign interference by force of arms in their internal concerns; and I trust that the affairs of the Italian peninsula may be peacefully and satisfactorily settled.
“I am in communication with the Emperor of the French with a view to extend the commercial intercourse between the two countries, and thus to draw still closer the bonds of friendly alliance between them.
“A dispute having arisen between Spain and Morocco, I endeavoured, by friendly means, to prevent a rupture; but, I regret to say, without success.
“My Plenipotentiary and the Plenipotentiary of the Emperor of the French having, in obedicence to their instructions, proceeded to the mouth of the Peiho river, in order to repair to Pekin to exchange in that city the ratifications of the treaty of Tien-tsin, in pursuance of the LVIth Article of that treaty, their further progress was opposed by force, and a conflict took place between the Chinese forts at the mouth of the river and the naval forces by which the Plenipotentiaries were escorted.
“The allied forces displayed on this occasion their usual bravery, but, after sustaining a severe loss, were compelled to retire.
“I am preparing, in concert and co-operation with the Emperor of the French, an expedition, intended to obtain redress and a fulfilment of the stipulations of the Treaty of Tien-tsin.
“An unauthorised proceeding by an officer of the United States, in regard to the Island of San Juan, between Vancouver’s Island and the mainland, might have led to a serious collision between my forces and those of the United States. Such collision, however, has been prevented on this matter by the Government of the United States.
“I trust that the question of boundary out of which this affair has arisen may be amicably settled in a manner conformable with the just rights of the two countries, as defined by the first article of the Treaty of 1846.
“The last embers of disturbance in my East Indian dominions have been extinguished; my Viceroy has made a peaceful progress through the districts which had been the principal scene of disorder, and, by a judicious combination of firmness and generosity, my authority has been everywhere solidly, and, I trust, permanently established. I have received from my Viceroy the most grattifying accounts of the loyalty of my Indian subjects, and of the good feeling evinced by the native chiefs and the great land-owners of the country. The attention of the Government of India has been directed to the development of the internal resources of the country; and I am glad to inform you that an improvement has taken place in its financial prospects.
“I have concluded a treaty with the Tycoon of Japan, and a treaty regarding boundaries with the republic of Guatemala. I have directed that these treaties shall be laid before you.
“I have directed the estimates for the ensuing year to be laid before you. They have been prepared with a view to place the military and naval services, and the defences of the country, upon an efficient footing.
“I am glad to be able to inform you that the public revenue is in a satisfactory condition.
“I have accepted, with gratification and pride, the extensive offers of Voluntary service which I have received from my subjects. This manifestation of public spirit has added an important element to our system of national defence.
“Measures will be laid before you form amending the laws which regulate the representation of the people in Parliament, and for placing that representation upon a broader and firmer basis.
“I am deeply gratified to observe that the great interests of the country are generally in a sound and thriving condition; that pauperism and crime have diminished; and that, throughout the whole of my empire, both in the United Kingdom and in my colonies and possessions beyond sea, there reigns a spirit of loyalty, of contentment, of order, and of obedience to the law.”
The whole Speech will be found admirably paraphrased in the Essence of Parliament, which, as usual, contains all the events of the Session really worthy of being recorded.
As the progress of the Constitutional cause in Italy was regarded with the warmest sympathy by all classes in England, much of the present volume has reference to that interesting struggle, and a brief summary of events will explain many of the illustration, and the articles associated with them in the present and succeeding volumes. We shall quote somewhat freely from the Annual Register of 1860.
By the Treaty of Villafranca, which was signed at Zurich ob the 11th of November, 1859, it was agreed between France and Austria that an European Powers, to take into consideration the question of the pacification of Italy. The Congress, however, never met; for it was found impossible to arrange a common basis of action on account of the discordance of the views entertained with respect to the question of the Duchies of Parma and Modena and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. France was pledged to Austria to do all in her power to effect the restoration of the Dukes and Grand Duke; but England was opposed to any interference, and wished the inhabitants of those kingdoms to settle their own respective Governments free from the compulsion of external pressure. The consequence was, that a great deal of diplomatic correspondence took place during the latter part of past wear without leading to any result. We have, in our preceding volume, quoted the remarkable letter of the French Emperor to the Pope, dated the 31st December, 1859, in which he called upon the Holy Father to renounce the Legations, which for the last fifty years has caused so much embarrassment to his Government, and in exchange to demand from the Powers that they should guarantee him possession of the remainder of his dominions of the Church; and they were ultimately torn from him by what, on another occasion, the Emperor called “the inexorable logic of facts,” or, in other words, the irresistible force of war.
The conduct of the people if Italy was well expressed in a despatch written by Lord John Russell to Lord A.Loftus, our Minister at Vienna. “In 1848 the people of Europe, misled by wild enthusiasts, attempted to found stable governments on republican theories; but at the present time the people of Italy, in harmony with public opinion throughout Europe, seek fro orders as well as liberty beneath the dome of monarchy, supported by national consent and equal laws.”
The people indulged in no visionary dream of a republic, neither were they led into the commission of any excesses, with one melancholy exception – the murder of Count Anviti, at Parma.
The Congress did not assemble, and various plans were submitted by England and France, but the Pope’s temporalities were ever int the way of an adjustment. At length Count Cavour addressed a note (in reply to various propositions) to Chevalier Nigra, the Sardinian Minister in Paris, in which he said,-
“Whatever may be the reply returned by the States of Central Italy, the King’s Government at once declares that it will accept it unconditionally. If Tuscany declares for the preservation of her self-government by means of the formation of a State distinct from Sardinia, not only will it not oppose the realisation of this wish, but it will frankly aid in overcoming the obstacles which such a solution might encounter, and obviating the inconvenience which may follow from it. It will act in like manner with respect to the Romagna and to the Duchies of Parma and Modena. Bur if. on the contrary, these provinces again manifest in a cleat manner a wish to be united to Plemont, we cannot any longer oppose it. Indeed, did we wish to do so, we could not. In the present state of public opinion, a Ministry who should refuse a second demand for annexation, sanctioned by a second popular vote ob the part of Tuscany, would not only no longer find support in Parliament, but would soon be overthrown by an unanimous vote of censure.”
The Provisional Governments of Tuscany and Emilia (which comprises the Duchies of Parma and Modena and the Legations) issued decrees at the end of February, announcing that the people would be called upon, on the 11th and 12th of March, to vote by ballot and universal suffrage on the question of annexation to Sardinia or a separate kingdom. The vote was then taken, and decided by an immense majority in favour of annexation.
The result of this appeal to universal suffrage, on the part of Emilia, was presenter by Signor Farini, the Provisional Governor, to Victor-Emmanuel at Turin, on the 18th of March, and on the part of Tuscany, by Baron Ricasoli (who had succeeded Chevalier Buoncampagni as Provisional Governor) on the 22nd. On receiving the homage of Emilia the King said:-
“In uniting to my ancient provinces not only the States of Modena and Parma, but also the Romagna, which has already separated itself from the Papal Government, I do not intend to fail in my deep devotion to the Chief of the Church. I am ready to defend the independence necessary to the supreme minister of religion, the Pope, to contribute to the splendour of his Court, and to pay homage to his Sovereignty.”
A bill was afterwards brought into the Sardinian Chambers to authorise the annexation, and passed into a law.
Another actor was now to appear on the scene of Italian politics. Francis the Second had succeeded his father, Ferdinand the Second, on the throne of the Two Sicilies; and he followed his father’s footsteps in doing all in his power to alienate the hearts of his people and crush every aspiration of liberty. At the beginning of April an insurrection broke out in Sicily at Palermo, where the Royal troops were attacked, and the city was placed in a state of siege. The revolt spread rapidly over the island, and Messina, Catania, and Agrigentum declared against the Government. Guerilla bands traversed the interior, and the movements of the insurgents were directed by a secret revolutionary committee, the names and locality of which were unknown to the Royalists. But in the meantime Garibaldi was collecting volunteers to take part in the insurrection. He all but openly organised an expedition to Sicily in the dominions of Sardinia, and at length on the night of the 5th of May, sailed from Genoa with a body of about 2000 men.
On their voyage Garibaldi issued the following proclamation:-
“Italians! – The Sicilians are fighting against the enemies of Italy and for Italy. To help them with money, arms, and especially men, is the duty of every Italian.”
“Let the Marches, Umbria, Sabine, the Roman Campagna, and the Neapolitan territory rise, so as to divide the enemy’s forces.
“If the cities do not offer a sufficient basis for insurrection, let the more resolute throw themselves into the open country.
“A brave man can always find a weapon. In the names of Heaven, hearken not to the voice of those who cream themselves at well-served tables.
“Let us arm. Let us fight for our brothers; to-morrow we can fight for ourselves.
“A handful of brave men, who have followed me in battles for our country, are advancing with me to the rescue. Italy knows them; they always appear at the hour of danger. Brave and generous companions, they have devoted their lives to their country; they will ahed their last drop of blood for it, seeking no other reward than that of a pure conscience.
“’Italy and Victor-Emmanuel!’ – that was our battle-cry we we crossed the Ticino; it will resound into the very depths of Etna.
“As this prophetic battle-cry re-echoes from the hills of Italy to the Tarpeian Mount, the tottering throne of tyranny will fall to pieces, and the whole country will rise like one man.”
The Sardinian government affected to disallow this hostile expedition, but when the end it sought was obtained, Victor-Emmanuel said, in an address to the people of Southern Italy,
“It was quite natural that the events which had taken place in Central Italy should have more or less excited the minds of the people of South Italy. In Siciliy this disposition of the people found vent in open revolt. The people were fighting for liberty in Sicily, when a brave warrior, devoted to Italy and me – General Garibaldi – sprang ti their assistance. They were Italians, I could not, I ought not to restrain them.”
Garibaldi effected a landing at Marsala on the 10th of May with four pieces of artillery, and soon joined the insurgents, when he assumed the title of Dictator of Sicily on the name of Victor-Emmanuel and Italy. The next day Garibaldi defeated 3,000 Neapolitan troops under General Landi, and occupied Calata Fimi, driving the enemy from all their positions. He then advanced towards Palermo, and at daybreak on the 27th May (Whit Sunday) Garibaldi attacked the city and drove the Neapolitans out of the streets into the citadel, from which they kept up a heavy bombardment aided by the Royalist Fleet in the harbour. At last an armistice was proposed by Lanza, the Neapolitan commander, and subsequently the Royalist troops evacuated Palermo, with the exception of Fort Castellamare. Garibaldi now formed a ministry, and remained some time at Palermo, occupied in the formation of the new Government. On the 20th of June he defeated the Neapolitans at Melazzo, after a severe contest, in which he was personally engaged, narrowly escaping death.
The King of the Two Sicilies now endeavoured, in vain, to appease the discontent of his subjects by concessions, but Garibaldi issued a proclamation from Messina on the 6th of August, to the people of the Neapolitan mainland, calling upon them to unite with him “to constitute Italy without slaugher of her sons, and together to serve her and die for her.” Shortly after he landed at Reggio, obtained possession of the fort which the garrison had evacuated, leaving behind them a considerable number of cannon and 500 stand of arms. He then surrounded the Royalists at San Giovanni; and so confident was he that the enemy would surrender, that he generously forbade his troops to fire; and in a short time a flag of truce came over from the Royalists. After a brief hesitation, shouts arose among them of “Viva Garibaldi! Viva l’Italia!” and Garibaldi went down amongst them, when he was almost torn to pieces by “hugging and embracing.” The Neapolitan soldiers, about 2000, were permitted to depart to their homes.
(For Contituation, see Volume XXXIX.)
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